"The most illustrious city in Asia Minor"
Pliny the Elder, Roman author 23-79 AD [1]
Pergamon, whose ancient Greek name Pergamos means "people of the high city", had been inhabited since prehistory. However, it really appeared on the map during Hellenistic Age (323-146 BC) [2] which began with the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Archaeological finds around Pergamon date back to the time of the Hittites. Later, Thracian and Mycenean Greek tribes moved through or settled in the area, though little is known of the early history of Pergamon itself.
Various myths surround the foundation of Pergamon, the most famous of which, involving the heroes Telephos and Heracles, was graphically depicted on the reliefs on the inner court walls of the Zeus Altar on the acropolis (now in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin). This complicated yarn has all the ingredients of epic myth: love, sex, lost children, betrayal, battles, shipwrecks, rescues, prophecies and divine interventions. It is suprising it hasn't been made into a movie.
This myth was used by Pergamon's Attalid rulers (4th-2nd centuries BC, see below) as legitimizing propaganda, weaving in elements of mortal heroism, the ancient Greek gods and ancestor worship. The Attalids claimed to be descendants of Telephos. The narrative also ties Pergamon to other places revered in classical times such as Arcadia, Delphi and Troy.
Another foundation myth is retold by the travel writer and historian Pausanias (2nd century AD) who spent some time in Pergamon. Pergamus, son of the Homeric Pyrros, son of Achilles, and Andromache, widow of Hector, crossed from Epiros to Asia, killed Areios king of Teuthrania in single combat, took the throne and renamed the city after himself. His mother Andromache went with him, and Pausanias tells us that her shrine there still existed in his day. [3] |
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Pergamon acropolis |
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1000 BC: Greek settlers
Aeolian Greeks from Thessaly and Boeotia settled here around 1000 BC when they were driven from mainland Greece by invading Dorians. In contrast to their new neighbours in Asia, the sea-going Ionians, the Aeolians were landlubbers and farmers. The Greek historian Herodotus (circa 485-425 BC), who was born in Halicarnassos (modern Bodrum) in Caria, wrote that "the soil of Aeolia is better than that of Ionia, but the climate is not so good." (Histories, book I, 150)
Pergamon was in the ancient region Mysia which was overtaken by the neighbouring kingdom of Phrygia (to the east) and then by Lydia (to the south). |
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Kouros statue
5th century BC.
Archaeological Museum, Samos, Greece. |
546-334 BC: The Persians
In 546 BC the Lydian king Croesos was defeated by King Cyrus the Great (559 - 529 BC), and the Greek cities of Anatolia became part of the Persian empire.
For the next 200 years the Greeks and Persians were to be arch enemies, with wars on an enormous scale and unsuccessful revolts by conquered Greek cities, and for a while it seemed that the Greek culture and way of life was doomed. This situation was made worse by the age-old prediliction of the Greek states for fighting among themselves, particularly Athens and Sparta. Various Greek states and generals also allied themselves with Persia either to damage competing Greek states, or because they were bribed or compelled to by the Persian kings.
But the Persian empire also had its weaknesses and internecine struggles. The Greeks were not above using Persia's problems to their own advantage, even supplying mercenaries to one side or the other.
The first written mention of Pergamon was by the general, historian and pupil of Socrates, Xenophon of Athens (circa 430 - 354 BC) who arrived with his army in 399 BC. In his memoir "Anabasis" ("The March Up Country"), he recounts how he led "the ten thousand" Greek soldiers out of south eastern Anatolia after a disastrous military expedition to support Cyrus the Younger against his brother emperor Artaxerxes II of Persia (401 BC).
He concludes the work with an odd sort of "happy end" by telling of another military adventure. He and his soldiers travel through Mysia (northwestern Anatolia) on their way to yet another war. Xenophon is, as ever, short of money. In Pergamon he is "hospitably entertained" by Hellas, the widow of the city's administrator Gongylus the Eretrian. She tells him about Asidates, a rich Persian who lives in a tower nearby on the plain of the Caicus River, and suggests that he should rob and capture him, "wife, children, money, and all; of money he has a store". This Xenophon does, and his troops unanimously vote to give him the the first pick of the loot. (Anabasis, book 7:8, 23) He makes no attempt to justify this opportunistic robbery or explain his or Hellas' motives for it. Perhaps it was clear to his Greek readership that the Persians were the enemy and therefore fair game. |
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334-281 BC: Alexander the Great and his successors
Alexander the Great is said to have studied Xenophon's "Anabasis" as a field guide to Anatolia before embarking on his campaign against the Persian king Darius III. In 334 BC Alexander defeated the Darius on the River Granicus (near modern Çanakkele). As he marched through western Anatolia, Pergamon surrendered to him, and he appointed Barsine, the widow of the Persian commander, as administrator.
After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, his generals and relations (the Diadochi, or successors) waged war on each other for control of parts of his empire. Eventually, in 301 BC Lysimachus (360 - 281 BC), king of Thrace, took control of western Anatolia. With the great riches he had accumulated as the spoils of war, he began rebuilding ancient cities such as Ephesus, and several new cities appeared in Anatolia.
Lysimachus made one of his officers Philetaerus (circa 343–263 BC), who was a eunuch, the treasurer (gazophylax) of Pergamon in charge of hoard of 9000 talents (a very large fortune). Philetaerus had served Antigonus, one of Lysimachus' enemies, but had switched sides. He was to do this again as later the wars of the Diadochi became ever more complex and murderous. Lysimachus had made himself very unpopular with the people of western Anatolia, especially after he had his own son Agothocles murdered, and his days were numbered. Philetaerus offered the fortress of Pergamon and its treasury to Seleucus (circa 358 - 281 BC, later known as Seleucus I Nicator, the victorious), ruler of much of Alexander's empire in Asia and founder of the Seleucid dynasty (often referred to as the Syrian kings), who defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC.
After his victory, Seleucus was naturally keen to claim the promised riches of Pergamon in order to finance the expansion of his empire into Europe. The cunning Philetaerus was able to keep deferring the payoff, and luckily for him Seleucus was murdered by one of his own protegés soon after.
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Alexander the Great
marble head,
4th century BC.
Archaeological museum,
Pella, Greece. |
281 BC: The Attalid dynasty and the Gauls
Although Pergamon was now part of the Seleucid empire it was left largely autonomous. Philetaerus was able to hold onto Pergamon's wealth and use it to increase his power and influence and found the Attalid dynasty (after his father's name Attalus, Greek: Attalos) which was to rule Pergamon until 133 BC. All future Attalid rulers, except Eumenes II, depicted his head on their coins in honour of the dynastic founder.
On the acropolis Philetaerus built the temple of Demeter, the temple of Athena (Pergamon's patron goddess) and the first palace, and improved the city's fortifications. He donated funds to other cities and religious centres, including Delphi and Delos, thus strengthening diplomatic ties.
He also contributed troops, money and provisions to fight the Gauls, who had invaded the Balkans and Anatolia, and in 278 BC settled in the area of central Anatolia which was to become known as Galatia. The Gauls continually raided Greek settlements and were deemed invincible. They began demanding tributes, i.e. protection money, which the Greek cities were forced to pay. |
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Statue of Athena,
c. 190 BC.
From the Sanctuary
of Athena, Pergamon.
Pergamon Museum, Berlin |
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263-241 BC: Eumenes I
Philetaerus was succeeded by Eumenes I (died 241 BC), his nephew and adopted son, who revolted against the Seleucid king Antiochus I and defeated him near Sardis in 261 BC. He extended the land under the control of the newly independent Pergamon, and managed to maintain peace with the Seleucids and the Gauls who were still plaguing Anatolia. Eumenes also continued the building work on the acropolis begun by his uncle and encouraged the arts, philosophy and sports.
Like his uncle Philetaerus, Eumenes I died childless and was succeeded by his second cousin and adopted son Attalus.
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241-197 BC: Attalus I
One of the first decrees of Attalus I (269–197 BC, his Greek name was actually Attalos) banned the payment of tributes to the Gauls. The Celtic warriors attacked Pergamon, causing severe losses to the Attalus' forces. However the next year he managed to turn the tide against them and their Seleucid allies, and by 227 BC he had totally destroyed the Gallic threat. His victories made him a popular hero throughout the Greek world, and Epigonus built a memorial to them in Athens.
Attalus I became known as Soter (Saviour) and was the first Attalid to take the title king (238 BC). On Pergamon's acropolis he built a gallery for sculptures which included the famous Dying Gaul, a copy of which is in now Rome. He also began the building of the Pergamon Library, which was to became the second most important in the ancient world after the Library of Alexandria in Egypt. (There were actually two libraries at Alexandria, but that's another story). The building of the library was continued in grand style by his son Eumenes II (see below).
In Asia he had several victories and setbacks as he attempted to seize territory from the Seleucids, and he eventually turned his attentions westwards to Greece.
Significantly, he also allied himself with Rome which meanwhile had become the dominant power in the Mediterranean and was rapidly taking over Greek territories in Europe. At the time many Greek states, including Athens, welcomed the interventions by Attalus and the Romans against Philp V of Macedon in the first and second Macedonian Wars. During these wars Attalus captured the Aegean islands of Aegina (which he made his base of operations), Andros and Euboea.
In 201 BC Philip invaded Pergamon, but due to Attalus' improved fortifications he was unable to take the city and had to satisfy himself by destroying temples and altars outside the walls.
In 200 BC Attalus was given a hero's welcome in Athens, and a tribe was named after him. Pergamon had arrived as a power to be reckoned with in the Aegean, and Attalus had further enriched the city with the booty he had taken from defeated enemies.
The period of his reign was marked by wars throughout Asia and the Mediterranen, including Rome's war against Hannibal of Carthage. The stakes were very high, as the losers were either slaughtered or enslaved and the winners gained power, territory, slaves and riches; mercy was in very short supply.
Attalus, as one of the winners was able to live to the ripe old age of 72 and leave a stable family and kingdom to his four sons. |
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Attalus I
Marble head from the
Pergamon acropolis.
Pergamon Museum, Berlin |
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197-159 BC: Eumenes II
Attalus' eldest son and successor Eumenes II (ruled 197-159 BC) continued his father's policies, and was probably advised by his mother Apollonis. As an ally of Rome he continued to oppose Macedonia and the Seleucids under Antiochus III the Great.
He defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC and gained the regions of Phrygia, Lydia, Pisidia, Pamphylia and parts of Lycia with the blessing of the Romans.
As part of his plans for the Pergamon acropolis, Eumenes built the Altar of Zeus and undertook extensive renovations of the theatre. An avid collector of books, he also expanded the Pergamon Library, which gave rise to the legend that parchment (also known as pergament and pergamena, made from animal skins) was invented here.
According the Roman historian Varro (quoted by another Roman author Pliny the Elder), the Egyptian king Ptolemy V Epiphanes (ruled 203-181 BC) was so envious of Pergamon's growing library, which was competing with his own at Alexandria, that he banned the export of papyrus. Necessity being the mother of invention, Eumenes is said to have devised parchment to meet his needs [4]. Writing on skins was known long before Eumenes' time, indeeed Herodotus (circa 485-425 BC) mentions it as an ancient practice 5, but it is probable that the production of parchment was refined at Pergamon which must also have manufactured a considerable amount for writing and copying manuscripts for the estimated 200,000 volumes in the library.
Since parchment was not as easy to roll as papyrus, the development of sheets of treated skins sewn together as a codex led to the form of modern books.
Many of the books in Peragamon's library were later taken by Mark Anthony as a wedding gift for Cleopatra.
The Romans later suspected Eumenes of plotting with Perseus of Macedon, and in 167 BC offered to assist his younger brother Attalus (the second son of Attalus I and Apollonis, to become Attalus II) to overthrow him, but Attalus refused. In Eumenes' last years he apparently suffered ill health, and Attalus co-ruled with him from 160 BC.
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Pergamon's theatre,
mid 3rd century BC.
Renovated by
Eumenes II. |
159-138 BC: Attalus II
When Eumenes II died in 158 BC, his son Attalus (later Attalus III) was only around 12 years old and too young to rule, and so Eumenes' brother Attalus II Philadelphus (the brother-loving, 220–138 BC) continued his regency. He also married Eumenes' widow Stratonike, daughter of King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia, who was a good friend and ally of Attalus.
Attalus had already proved himself an able military commander and diplomat, having made several diplomatic visits to Rome and seen off attacks by the Seleucids (190 and 182 BC) and Pharnaces I of Pontus (182 BC). He had also fought alongside the Romans in Galatia (189 BC) and Greece (171 BC, during the Third Macedonian War).
With the support of the Romans he helped the pretender Alexander Balas depose the Seleucid king Demetrius I in 150 BC, and Nicomedes II Epiphanes to overthrow his father, the Bithynian king Prusias II in 149 BC. He thus sought to make allies of two of Pergamon's strongest local enemies.
King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia helped Attalus expand his territories and found the cities of Philadelphia and Attalia (the modern Turkish city of Antalya). By this time Pergamon had become the largest and most powerful kingdom in Anatolia.
Like his predecessors, Attalus encouraged the arts.
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Statue of Poseidon,
c. 160 BC.
From the Great Altar
of Zeus, Pergamon.
Pergamon Museum, Berlin |
138-133 BC: Attalus III, the last Attalid king
Attalus III Philometor Euergetes (Mother-Loving Benefactor, circa 170–133 BC) preferred studying medicine and botany to kingship, and having no male heir he decided to bequeath Pergamon and its extensive territories to the Roman Republic, presumably to prevent the kind of destructive wars of succession which had been tearing the Greek world apart since the death of Alexander the Great.
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133-129 BC: the pretender Eumenes III
Many of Pergamon's subjects were opposed to rule by Rome, which was slow to seize control, causing a power vacuum.
The pretender Aristonicus (Greek Aristonikos) claimed to be the illegitimate son Eumenes II and took the throne of Pergamon as Eumenes III.
He promised the Greek cities freedom in his new state of Heliopolis, and even promised to free all slaves. However he received limited support, and in 129 BC he was defeated by the Romans, who took him as a captive to Rome where he was executed. |
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We are currently working to extend this history of Pergamon,
and are also preparing a much shorter version.
This work should be completed by mid 2010.
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129 BC - : the Romans
Following the defeat of Aristonicus, Pergamon's vast territories were divided among Rome, Pontus and Cappadocia.
Under the Romans Pergamon continued to thrive financially and culturally.
However, Augustus (emperor 27 BC - 14 AD) moved the capital of proconsular Asia (western Asia Minor) from Pergamon to Ephesus, ending the city's days as a centre of power.
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Early Christianity
Pergamon was one of the seven churches of Asia addressed in the Book of Revelation, written by Saint John of Patmos (see our pages on Patmos, Greece). John referred to Pergamon as "the seat of Satan" (Revelation 2: 12-13).
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Text and photos: © David John 2004 - 2010
Notes
We try to keep footnotes to a minumum, and provide these mainly for interest and reference.
1. "... longeque clarissimum Asiae Pergamum". Gaius Plinius Secundus (better known as Pliny the Elder, 23-79 AD), Natural History (Naturalis Historia, published around 77-79 AD), Book V, chapter 30.
2. The Hellenistic Age began with the conquests of Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) and ended when the Romans conquered what had been his empire, i.e. Greece and parts of the Balkans, Asia and north Africa. During this era Greek culture was spread widely but was also influenced by the art, science and ideas from the known world.
3. Pausanias, Guide to Greece, Book 1, 11.2.
4. In his encyclopedic work Natural History (Naturalis Historia, published around 77-79 AD, Book XIII, chapter 21), Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, 23–79 AD) ascribes the story of the invention of parchment at Pergamon to the Roman scholar Varro (Marcus Terentius Varro, also known as Varro Reatinus, 116–27 BC), most of whose works have been lost.
5. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ("the father of history", circa 485-425 BC), Histories (Historia), Book V, 58. Herodotus writes that the Ionian name for paper was "skins" (diphtherai), which he supposes went back to ancient times before papyrus was easily available, and that many "foreign peoples" still write on goat and sheep skins. He reports having seen three cauldrons used for preparing such skins in Thebes in Boeotia.
More detailed information about Pergamon's sights can be found with the photos in the photo gallery.
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